Heqin

Heqin (simplified Chinese: 和亲; traditional Chinese: 和親; pinyin: Héqīn; literally "peace marriage") was a term used in ancient China for an alliance by marriage. It usually referred to the Chinese Emperor marrying off a "princess" (usually a pseudo-princess or concubine whom he had never met before) to an aggressive "barbarian" chieftain or ruler. The theory was that in exchange for the marriage, the chieftain would cease all aggressive actions toward China. The best-known example of heqin involved the beauty Wang Zhaojun. The first known instance of this type of marriage occurred in 200 BC, when a pseudo-princess was offered to a Xiongnu Chanyu as suggested by Lou Jin (later given the surname Liu by the Imperial Court).

Heqin was engaged in by most dynasties in Chinese history to some extent. By contrast to their contemporaries, such as the Liao, Jin, Western Xia, Yuan and the Northern Yuan dynasties, the Song and Ming dynasties did not practice such alliances.

They were used to best effect by the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, and the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty (to Mongols, etc.).

Contents

Han Dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.

Sixteen Kingdoms Period

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han Dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.

Southern and Northern Dynasties

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of Heqin marriage.

Sui Dynasty

With the establishment of the Sui Dynasty in 581 A.D., China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.

There were a total of seven instances of Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.

Tang Dynasty

During the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered the Tang Empire: The Tuyuhun Kingdom, Tibet, the Khitans, Orkhon Uyghur, and the Kingdom of Nanzhao. Unlike during some preceding dynasties, most heqin princesses during the Tang Dynasty were actual princesses (or at least noblewomen of recent imperial descent).

There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:

There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty.

640—690: 5 instances, to Tuyuhun, and 1 instance to Tibet.
710—745: 4 instances, to Khitan, 3 instances, to Xi, and 1 instance, to Tibet.
758—821: 7 instances, to Orkhon Uyghur (including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and 3 of Tiele descent).
883: 1 occurrence, to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang).

During the Ming Dynasty, according to the indigenous people of Malacca, Malaysia and descendants of Chinese immigrants there, Princess Hang Li Poh (汉丽宝公主) was given in marriage to the Malay Sultan together with 500 lady servants. Although this story is not found in Ming dynasty historical records, it was written in the Malay Annals.[2] And Malacca people generally believed the story to be true, and some Chinese there claim to be descendants of the Princess. The Chinese graves dating to the Ming dynasty in Bukit Cina and other folklores and related relics there also provide strong supporting evidence.[3] This marriage arrangement was not likely to result in practicable military alliance, however, since the Malacca Sultanate was too far away from China. Nevertheless, the Malacca Sultanate did pay tributes to China, and Chinese influence helped deterred attack from Siam.[4]

See also

References

  1. ^ Watson (1993), p. 142.
  2. ^ 汉丽宝公主
  3. ^ [1]
  4. ^ [2]